French revolution Essay

Before the French Revolution, France was ruled and governed by the king, his Grand Council of ministers, and 13 courts called parliaments. King Louis XVI ruled by â€Å"divine right,† believing that he had been put on the throne by the grace of God. France then was one of the most powerful and wealthiest countries, and had a strong army, and even stronger cultural influence. (Plain, 5) Louis XVI and his wife Marie-Antoinette were shielded from the daily lives of the ordinary people in France. When Louis XVI inherited the throne in 1774, he also inherited many problems left behind by the previous king, King Louis XV. The country had been involved in the Seven Years War, also known as the French and Indian War, and was left with many debts of the war. France was divided into three groups, or estates with their own status and role to play in the country. The First Estate involved religious people in the country. The Second Estate involved all the nobles. These two estates had many privileges, and were the wealthiest group, but were only a small piece of the entire population. The Third Estate was everyone else in the country: the peasants, poor city dwellers, and the â€Å"middle class†. The Third Estate was the largest group, and had little to no power, even though it was the largest group. (Connolly, 8) In order to pay off national debts, Louis XVI increased taxes in the Third Estate, which impacted many of their lives. Because of the taxes, industry started to lag, and there were bread shortages in many places. People of the Third Estate relied on bread as their primary source of food, and when the bread ran out or the price increased, many people went hungry and riots broke out. (Plain, 19) Louis XVI shocked many people when he declared war against the British, even though they were already in massive debt because of the Seven Year’s War. King Louis XVI wanted to increase trade with America, and wanted revenge against the British for beating them in the Seven Year’s war. After the American Revolution, many Parisians were fascinated by Benjamin Franklin, the American Ambassador to France. Franklin told of the new American Republic, where representatives obeyed the will of the people. Talk about similar change spread through France. Louis XVI tried to make reforms by ending the corvà ©e in many provinces, and  outlawed the use of torture to gain information. He also granted more rights to Protestants and Jews living in France, and allowed more freedom of press. However, it was becoming harder and harder to govern with a stubborn parliament. In order to pay off debts, Louis tried to impose a tax on all landowners, not just the Third Estate. The parliament of Paris claimed that only a special assembly could approve a tax, an assembly that hasn’t been called in over 170 years, the Estates-General. (French Revolution ², 2) The Estates-General was an assembly where representatives of the three Estates could discuss what to do. Through May and into June 1789, the representatives argued about how many votes each Estate should have. The First and Second Estates bent the rules to their advantage, saying that each Estate should have only one vote, ensuring that they would win any conflict two to one. The Third Estate wanted a system of majority votes, since it would give it the most say. On Jun 17, the Third Estate broke away and declared itself the National Assembly, which was a direct offence to the people in power, including King Louis XVI. (Connolly,12) The National Assembly created a new law that gave only it the power to decide on taxes. Louis XVI banned the National Assembly from its meeting hall upon hearing this. However, on June 20, 1789, the National Assembly responded by moving to the Versailles tennis court across the street and swore the â€Å"Tennis Court Oath.† The representatives swore that they would not break apart until they had drafted a constitution for the people of France, guaranteeing rights to the French people. Many lower-ranking clergy and a number of nobles broke away from the First and Second Estates to join the National Assembly. Louis feared the combined strength of this group, and could see that people were rising up against him. (Connolly, 14) In order to show the French his power, Louis hired foreign soldiers to go to Versailles and Paris, and fired the popular minister Jacques Necker. However, with the public and numbers from the other two Estates on its side, the Third Estate stood strong. The king, not wanting an outright revolt, ordered the representatives from the First and Second Estates to join the National Assembly to show that he accepted the change in mood, which then changed its name to the National Constituent Assembly. The French people wanted complete victory for the representatives of the Third Estate. They were mad that the king brought foreign soldiers in to France and fired Jacques Necker. On July 12, 1789, full scale rioting began, with symbols of the king’s power the main targets. Crowds of people gathered at the Hà ´tel Invalides, the place where the army stored their guns, and demanded arms to fight with. They rioters were able to get about thirty-thousand muskets and several cannons. However, they obtained very little gunpowder and few bullets. Upon hearing that the gunpowder and ammunition have been moved to the fortified prison, the Bastille, for safekeeping, thousands of people went to swarm the Bastille. The Bastille was originally built as a fortress, with walls five feet thick, but was now used as a political prison, but held very few prisoners. The crowd attacked shortly after noon on July 14, and Bernard de Launey, the man in command at the Bastille, agreed to surrender to the crowd if he was not harmed. But, the crowds took Launey prisoner, and soon after cut off his head and mounted it on a pike. (Corzine, 44-46) When Louis XVI was informed of the fall of the Bastille, he exclaimed, â€Å"But, this is a revolt!† The official who informed him told him, â€Å"No, Sire. It is a revolution.† (Plain, 29) In August, the National Assembly wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, influenced by America’s Declaration of Independence. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen called for political power to be shared by every individual, for the right of religious freedom, and the rule of law. (Plain, 30) On October 5, 1789, thousands of women gathered at the city hall in Paris demanding bread. They disarmed guards and collected weapons and set out to Versailles to see the king. Along the way, a number of men and women joined them armed with scythes, heavy sticks, pikes, pitchforks, and knives. After the king was led back to Paris, he was literally held under house-arrest as a hostage. Louis XVI was convinced by his advisors and the queen to flee Paris and the entire royal family fled under the cover of the night. Many deputies feared that, with the king gone, foreign armies could invade France. The family’s flight was thwarted when they were recognized, a nd were led back to Paris as a prisoner in disgrace, and to many, a traitor. (Corzine, 63-65) By August 30, 1792, France was in a state of terror. The stronghold of Verdun was under siege by the Duke of Brunswick’s armies, which would give the enemy an open road to Paris if it fell. On September 2, news reached Paris that Verdun had fallen. On that September afternoon, terrible massacres occurred. Priests were dragged from their coaches and killed. Mobs stormed the Carmes prison and killed the priests imprisoned there. They were brought to a mock trial, and then executed. The killings lasted for five days, and over fourteen hundred people were killed. Nearly all the prisons in Paris were attacked and the prisoners murdered. (Corsine, 79-81) By 1792, members of the Jacobin club had taken control. The Assembly declared war on Austria and Prussia, but were easily defeated. As the enemy armies marched towards Paris, the people panicked. On August 10, about twenty thousand French revolutionaries stormed the Tuileries palace, forcing the royal family to flee. By then, many of the Revolution’s former leaders had left the country. In September, the French army defeated the Prussians. The National Assembly then voted and renamed itself the National Convention, which adopted the slogan Liberty, Equality, Fraternity. The Convention then immediately abolished monarchy, and, on January 15, 1793, the Convention found the king guilty of â€Å"conspiring against liberty.† The king was escorted to the guillotine on January 20, 1793, and was quickly executed, becoming a symbol of the Revolution. (Connolly, 32) Following the death of Louis XVI, France was waging war with nearly every European power, including England, the Netherlands, Spain, Austria, and Prussia. There was also a small civil war in France, with the Royalists and the pro-Church people against the Revolutionaries. To help France through the war, the National Convention created the Committee of Public Safety, led by Maximilien Robespierre, the leader of the Jacobin Club of Paris. Robespierre stressed the need for a center of opinion and was enemies with many members of the Convention. The Committee of Public Safety tried to de-Christianize France, and created a completely new calendar. The Committee of Public Safety soon led the country into what is now known as the Reign of Terror. During the Reign of Terror, possible enemies of the Revolution were executed. Over sixteen thousand people from all classes were sent to the  guillotine, and flags now had the phrase Liberty, Equality, Fraternity, or Death! But, in July 1794, Rob espierre was sentenced to the guillotine, and his followers followed swiftly. (Plain, 35-38) The National Committee created a constitution that gave power to a five-member Directory, and two legislative bodies. The Directory had serious problems it had to face, such as supplying France with food and goods. Much of France’s population was starving. A little-known officer, Napoleon Bonaparte, supported the Directory and was able to help France in times of need. Several politicians overthrew the Directory on November 9, 1799, and created a new constitution which supposedly gave power to the Consulate, but actually gave all the real power to the First Consulate, which Napoleon Bonaparte was elected into. (Connolly, 44-45) Napoleon Bonaparte established the Bank of France, strengthened the school system, made government jobs, and established a code of justice known as the Napoleonic code. France also conquered many European countries, and by 1806, France controlled much of Western Europe. Napoleon soon became more and more powerful. He changed the constitution in order to give himself even more power, and declared himself Emperor of France soon after. The French believed that their lives were better under Napoleon, even though this was not the ideas of the Revolution. The French Revolution and the American Revolution were similar and different in many ways. The American’s wanted to break away from Great Britain, while France just wanted to get rid of the monarchy. During periods in the French Revolution, over seventeen thousand people were sent to the guillotine to be beheaded. During the war, America had France and Spain on its side and was against only Great Britain. France, however, was on its own, and had to fight against five countries. The French sent the king and queen of France to the Guillotine, but the Americans did not harm physically harm the royal family in any way. After the war, America had two forms of government. One was the Articles of Confederation, which gave too much power to the states, and another one was the Constitution of the United States. The French had four forms of government. The first was the National Assembly, the second  was the Committee of Public Safety, the third was the Directory, and the fourth was t he Consulate. For the French, their lives were better after the Revolution and once Napoleon was the First Consulate. The French Revolution was truly a revolution. The French Revolution was a real revolution because there are political changes, social changes, and economical changes. After the war, the French have overthrown the monarchy, and replaced it with the Directory. However, the Directory then fails, and is replaced with the Consulate. The people’s lives improved after the Revolution. The school system was better, and there were more jobs for people who could qualify. Napoleon established the Bank of France and improved the economy. Napoleon had improved the areas of education, justice, and business after the war, making the French Revolution a real revolution.

Indigenous Peoples of the Americas and Brand New Way Essay

Indigenous people are those that are native to an area. Throughout the world, there are many groups or tribes of people that have been taken over by the Europeans in their early conquests throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, by immigrating groups of individuals, and by greedy corporate businesses trying to take their land. The people indigenous to Australia, Brazil and South America, and Hawaii are currently fighting for their rights as people: the rights to own land, to be free from prejudice, and to have their lands protected from society. Indigenous People of Brazil and South America The people indigenous to Brazil and South America are an extremely noteworthy group. The Brazilian population originally derives from four ethnic sources. From the beginning, the country has been a mixture of many â€Å"races† of people. Of these, are the native Indians, the colonizing Portuguese, the enslaved African blacks, and the various immigrant groups from Europe and Asia. Many of the indigenous tribes are quarreling with Brazil’s officials and businesses. Rainforests are depleting at a rapid rate and, as they are a home to many indigenous tribes, is causing great turmoil. Although the Constitution of 1988 claims to recognize the indians’ â€Å"original land rights to the lands they traditionally occupy† and promise that these lands will be â€Å"demarcated† and â€Å"protected†, the Government Agency Funai is charged with the demarcation of of nearly fifty percent of the lands(PeaceNet). The report claims that, â€Å"in reality, most most indian lands whether demarcated or not are coveted for some form of development. † This claim is substantiated by the fact that â€Å"mineral concessions have been made on fifty-eight percent of all demarcated indian lands, while thirteen percent are affected by hydroelectric projects,† (PeaceNet) The link between global environmental change and the rights of indigenous populations results from the close relationship between indigenous people’s cultural and economic situations and their environmental settings. Therefore, if the environment of the native Indians of Brazil continues to be changed and removed, the people born on these lands will be exterminated out of existence. Additionally, many societal views of the indigenous people is killing them. The Amnesty International report, as commented upon by PeaceNet cites one occasion in which a thirty-five year old Macuxi Indian by the name of Damiao Mendes was found lying face down on a muddy riverbank, shot in the neck. Nearby lay his nineteen year-old nephew, murdered by the same means. Opposition from local ranchers stalled the demarcation of the land belonging to the Macuxi Indians. The Macuxi are a group whose ancestral lands lie on the plains of Roraima. The Indians’ claim to the land has resulted in the attacks, and thusfar have forced many to abandon the ancestral grasslands. The report continues, â€Å"Damaio Mendes and Mario Davis were killed for land. The investigation into the killing was cursory. No one has been brought to justice. Dozens of Indians in Brazil have been murdered in similar circumstances. † One group, the leaders of the Mexica Movement, accuse Europeans of invading their lands in 1492 and and 1519, and breaking up â€Å"our lands that they call Mexico(1821), â€Å"Central America†(1823), and the â€Å"U. S. Southwest†(Texas in 1836 and the rest in 1848). (Mexica, 2)† They also point out that â€Å"In the last 500 years, in addition to the theft of our lands, we have seen the destruction of of our Anahuac cities, the execution of our leaders, the genocide if 23 million of our people (95% of our population killed), the theft of our wealth, the theft of out labor, and most importantly, the theft of our true Anahuac identity, history, heritage, and theology. † They point out many of the successes of the Anahuac civilization, including developed sciences, agriculture, philosophies, all of the civilized arts, and three cities larger than Europe’s largest city. Powerful phrases are used, such as â€Å"racial rape and cultural castration of our population†, and claim that the the influx of Europeans caused the Anahuac to become a society riddled with â€Å"ignorance, poor education, low-self-esteem, poverty, crime, gangs, dropouts, lack of indigenous representation, and and an inferiority complex of the worst kind: the self-hate of an entire people. † The Mexica Movement believes that the best way to solve this problem that they, as a society, are faced with, is to provide knowledge of its history and true heritage. They believe that â€Å"Knowledge, vision, courage, and perseverance will change our people into an authentically proud people, and a revived creative world force†¦ We will hold our heads and hearts proudly. We will happily know who we are. † Indigenous People of Australia The Aborigines are an indigenous group from Australia. They were the first human inhabitants of this land. The word Aborigine is actually from Latin language, meaning â€Å"from the beginning†. The Europeans gave this name to native Australians, but this is not what they call themselves. They prefer to be called Koori (Ponnamperuma). They adapted to their environment well: the people in the colder southeast tended to be short and thick-set which was useful for conserving body heat, and the people in the hot desert were taller and lean. The Aboriginals lived solely by hunting and food gathering. Each group accumulated detailed knowledge of the habits, cycles, and and food values of the plants, insects reptiles, marsupials, and fish found in its area, developing methods and equipment for obtaining them and, when necessary, for making them edible. The behavior of one insect, plant, or animal was a sign the condition or appearance of certain others, each in its own place in time. When one population group of natives increased beyond the number that could live within practical range, some of its members moved to the next unoccupied area, and still held kinship, social, economic, and ritual ties with the original group. By this process, all of Australia was occupied. The basic part of Aboriginal life was complete dependence on nature and on intelligent adaptation through knowledge and skill. This equilibrium between the native people and nature was hugely upset by European settlements beginning in 1788. The better lands were seized, and the food-gathering, theology, and social activities were stringently changed. The groups located near white settlements became more on an unbalanced diet furnished by whites. The inevitable result was the economic decline of the native people. The Aboriginals did, however, adjust to their new environment. For example, some Aboriginals in the northern cattle area were employed as stockmen. The Australian Federal Government is working along with natives to employ gradual self-determination and consultation in decision making. (Altman) However, continuing impoverished lifestyles of many groups of Aboriginals continues to be a problem. Education is poor and housing is inadequate(Real Borges 5 World). They received the right to vote in 1967, and are continuing to be successful in continuously demanding their rights as people (Ponnamperuma). Indigenous People of Hawaii In 1893, the United States Government along with U. S. Minister John L. Stevens, through covert operations, overthrew the Hawaiian monarch led by Queen Liliuokalani and helped to establish a Provisional Government which took full possession of all government functions and buildings of the Hawaiian islands. That same year, President Grover Cleveland submitted to Congress a full report that condemned the role of the American minister and the U. S. Marines and called for a restoration of the Hawaiian monarchy. In 1898, Congress ignored President Cleveland’s previous request and brought into the Union the Hawaiian Islands through the â€Å"Newlands Resolution† This was legally questioned as to whether the U. S. Congress had authority to admit territory into the Union because it is not specified that it had right to acquire land other than through conquest or treaty. The Japanese American Citizens League (JACL) realizes that the actions taken by the U. S. are illegal and thus are the basis for their legal claims for the restoration of human, civil, property, and sovereign rights of Hawaii’s indigenous people. The JACL believes that the unlawful overthrow holds special significance, as it has neither been addressed nor remedied for over a century. This loss of self-rule, according to the JACL â€Å"remains an important cultural and political factor today (Costanha)†. Additionally, the JACL believes that â€Å"unresolved justice to one is harm endured by all†¦ full range or consideration of Hawaii’s peoples’ rights and freedoms must be completely explored in order to bring about harmony within Hawaii’s society,†(Costanha). The JACL Many Hawaiians are bitter about the current â€Å"hip Hawaiian culture,† with hula girls and surfers. Many believe that they are being exploited, including one of the leaders of the native Hawaiian’s sovereignty movement, Haunani-Kay Trask (Nakao, 1). There are two proposed plans for a sovereign Hawaii. One is the â€Å"nation within a nation† model in which 4. 2 million square acres are set aside as Hawaiian homeland and residents pay taxes to elected Hawaiian representatives. The United States would still be in charge of defense and most legal matters, but Hawaii would have control over its land and resources. The other plan is that of complete sovereignty, in which Hawaii holds complete rule. The countries of Brazil and Australia and the state of Hawaii all have things in common: internal conflict, one group thriving at the bottom of a social hierarchy, and that same group fighting for their rights. These groups need and deserve to be given the land that Europeans have taken from them, and also should be treated equally. Indigenous People Indigenous people are those that are native to an area. Throughout the world, there are many groups or tribes of people that have been taken over by the Europeans in their early conquests throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, by immigrating groups of individuals, and by greedy corporate businesses trying to take their land. The people indigenous to Australia, Brazil and South America, and Hawaii are currently fighting for their rights as people: the rights to own land, to be free from prejudice, and to have their lands protected from society. Indigenous People of Brazil and South America The people indigenous to Brazil and South America are an extremely noteworthy group. The Brazilian population originally derives from four ethnic sources. From the beginning, the country has been a mixture of many â€Å"races† of people. Of these, are the native Indians, the colonizing Portuguese, the enslaved African blacks, and the various immigrant groups from Europe and Asia. Many of the indigenous tribes are quarreling with Brazil’s officials and businesses. Rainforests are depleting at a rapid rate and, as they are a home to many indigenous tribes, is causing great turmoil. Although the Constitution of 1988 claims to recognize the indians’ â€Å"original land rights to the lands they traditionally occupy† and promise that these lands will be â€Å"demarcated† and â€Å"protected†, the Government Agency Funai is charged with the demarcation of of nearly fifty percent of the lands(PeaceNet). The report claims that, â€Å"in reality, most most indian lands whether demarcated or not are coveted for some form of development. † This claim is substantiated by the fact that â€Å"mineral concessions have been made on fifty-eight percent of all demarcated indian lands, while thirteen percent are affected by hydroelectric projects,† (PeaceNet) The link between global environmental change and the rights of indigenous populations results from the close relationship between indigenous people’s cultural and economic situations and their environmental settings. Therefore, if the environment of the native Indians of Brazil continues to be changed and removed, the people born on these lands will be exterminated out of existence. Additionally, many societal views of the indigenous people is killing them. The Amnesty International report, as commented upon by PeaceNet cites one occasion in which a thirty-five year old Macuxi Indian by the name of Damiao Mendes was found lying face down on a muddy riverbank, shot in the neck. Nearby lay his nineteen year-old nephew, murdered by the same means. Opposition from local ranchers stalled the demarcation of the land belonging to the Macuxi Indians. The Macuxi are a group whose ancestral lands lie on the plains of Roraima. The Indians’ claim to the land has resulted in the attacks, and thusfar have forced many to abandon the ancestral grasslands. The report continues, â€Å"Damaio Mendes and Mario Davis were killed for land. The investigation into the killing was cursory. No one has been brought to justice. Dozens of Indians in Brazil have been murdered in similar circumstances. † One group, the leaders of the Mexica Movement, accuse Europeans of invading their lands in 1492 and and 1519, and breaking up â€Å"our lands that they call Mexico(1821), â€Å"Central America†(1823), and the â€Å"U. S. Southwest†(Texas in 1836 and the rest in 1848). (Mexica, 2)† They also point out that â€Å"In the last 500 years, in addition to the theft of our lands, we have seen the destruction of of our Anahuac cities, the execution of our leaders, the genocide if 23 million of our people (95% of our population killed), the theft of our wealth, the theft of out labor, and most importantly, the theft of our true Anahuac identity, history, heritage, and theology. † They point out many of the successes of the Anahuac civilization, including developed sciences, agriculture, philosophies, all of the civilized arts, and three cities larger than Europe’s largest city. Powerful phrases are used, such as â€Å"racial rape and cultural castration of our population†, and claim that the the influx of Europeans caused the Anahuac to become a society riddled with â€Å"ignorance, poor education, low-self-esteem, poverty, crime, gangs, dropouts, lack of indigenous representation, and and an inferiority complex of the worst kind: the self-hate of an entire people. † The Mexica Movement believes that the best way to solve this problem that they, as a society, are faced with, is to provide knowledge of its history and true heritage. They believe that â€Å"Knowledge, vision, courage, and perseverance will change our people into an authentically proud people, and a revived creative world force†¦ We will hold our heads and hearts proudly. We will happily know who we are. † Indigenous People of Australia The Aborigines are an indigenous group from Australia. They were the first human inhabitants of this land. The word Aborigine is actually from Latin language, meaning â€Å"from the beginning†. The Europeans gave this name to native Australians, but this is not what they call themselves. They prefer to be called Koori (Ponnamperuma). They adapted to their environment well: the people in the colder southeast tended to be short and thick-set which was useful for conserving body heat, and the people in the hot desert were taller and lean. The Aboriginals lived solely by hunting and food gathering. Each group accumulated detailed knowledge of the habits, cycles, and and food values of the plants, insects reptiles, marsupials, and fish found in its area, developing methods and equipment for obtaining them and, when necessary, for making them edible. The behavior of one insect, plant, or animal was a sign the condition or appearance of certain others, each in its own place in time. When one population group of natives increased beyond the number that could live within practical range, some of its members moved to the next unoccupied area, and still held kinship, social, economic, and ritual ties with the original group. By this process, all of Australia was occupied. The basic part of Aboriginal life was complete dependence on nature and on intelligent adaptation through knowledge and skill. This equilibrium between the native people and nature was hugely upset by European settlements beginning in 1788. The better lands were seized, and the food-gathering, theology, and social activities were stringently changed. The groups located near white settlements became more on an unbalanced diet furnished by whites. The inevitable result was the economic decline of the native people. The Aboriginals did, however, adjust to their new environment. For example, some Aboriginals in the northern cattle area were employed as stockmen. The Australian Federal Government is working along with natives to employ gradual self-determination and consultation in decision making. (Altman) However, continuing impoverished lifestyles of many groups of Aboriginals continues to be a problem. Education is poor and housing is inadequate(Real Borges 5 World). They received the right to vote in 1967, and are continuing to be successful in continuously demanding their rights as people (Ponnamperuma). Indigenous People of Hawaii In 1893, the United States Government along with U. S. Minister John L. Stevens, through covert operations, overthrew the Hawaiian monarch led by Queen Liliuokalani and helped to establish a Provisional Government which took full possession of all government functions and buildings of the Hawaiian islands. That same year, President Grover Cleveland submitted to Congress a full report that condemned the role of the American minister and the U. S. Marines and called for a restoration of the Hawaiian monarchy. In 1898, Congress ignored President Cleveland’s previous request and brought into the Union the Hawaiian Islands through the â€Å"Newlands Resolution† This was legally questioned as to whether the U. S. Congress had authority to admit territory into the Union because it is not specified that it had right to acquire land other than through conquest or treaty. The Japanese American Citizens League (JACL) realizes that the actions taken by the U. S. are illegal and thus are the basis for their legal claims for the restoration of human, civil, property, and sovereign rights of Hawaii’s indigenous people. The JACL believes that the unlawful overthrow holds special significance, as it has neither been addressed nor remedied for over a century. This loss of self-rule, according to the JACL â€Å"remains an important cultural and political factor today (Costanha)†. Additionally, the JACL believes that â€Å"unresolved justice to one is harm endured by all†¦ full range or consideration of Hawaii’s peoples’ rights and freedoms must be completely explored in order to bring about harmony within Hawaii’s society,†(Costanha). The JACL Many Hawaiians are bitter about the current â€Å"hip Hawaiian culture,† with hula girls and surfers. Many believe that they are being exploited, including one of the leaders of the native Hawaiian’s sovereignty movement, Haunani-Kay Trask (Nakao, 1). There are two proposed plans for a sovereign Hawaii. One is the â€Å"nation within a nation† model in which 4. 2 million square acres are set aside as Hawaiian homeland and residents pay taxes to elected Hawaiian representatives. The United States would still be in charge of defense and most legal matters, but Hawaii would have control over its land and resources. The other plan is that of complete sovereignty, in which Hawaii holds complete rule. The countries of Brazil and Australia and the state of Hawaii all have things in common: internal conflict, one group thriving at the bottom of a social hierarchy, and that same group fighting for their rights. These groups need and deserve to be given the land that Europeans have taken from them, and also should be treated equally. Indigenous People. Indigenous people are those that are native to an area. Throughout the world, there are many groups or tribes of people that have been taken over by the Europeans in their early conquests throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, by immigrating groups of individuals, and by greedy corporate businesses trying to take their land. The people indigenous to Australia, Brazil and South America, and Hawaii are currently fighting for their rights as people: the rights to own land, to be free from prejudice, and to have their lands protected from society. Indigenous People of Brazil and South America The people indigenous to Brazil and South America are an extremely noteworthy group. The Brazilian population originally derives from four ethnic sources. From the beginning, the country has been a mixture of many â€Å"races† of people. Of these, are the native Indians, the colonizing Portuguese, the enslaved African blacks, and the various immigrant groups from Europe and Asia. Many of the indigenous tribes are quarreling with Brazil’s officials and businesses. Rainforests are depleting at a rapid rate and, as they are a home to many indigenous tribes, is causing great turmoil. Although the Constitution of 1988 claims to recognize the indians’ â€Å"original land rights to the lands they traditionally occupy† and promise that these lands will be â€Å"demarcated† and â€Å"protected†, the Government Agency Funai is charged with the demarcation of of nearly fifty percent of the lands(PeaceNet). The report claims that, â€Å"in reality, most most indian lands whether demarcated or not are coveted for some form of development. â€Å" This claim is substantiated by the fact that â€Å"mineral concessions have been made on fifty-eight percent of all demarcated indian lands, while thirteen percent are affected by hydroelectric projects,† (PeaceNet) The link between global environmental change and the rights of indigenous populations results from the close relationship between indigenous people’s cultural and economic situations and their environmental settings. Therefore, if the environment of the native Indians of Brazil continues to be changed and removed, the people born on these lands will be exterminated out of existence. Additionally, many societal views of the indigenous people is killing them. The Amnesty International report, as commented upon by PeaceNet cites one occasion in which a thirty-five year old Macuxi Indian by the name of Damiao Mendes was found lying face down on a muddy riverbank, shot in the neck. Nearby lay his nineteen year-old nephew, murdered by the same means. Opposition from local ranchers stalled the demarcation of the land belonging to the Macuxi Indians. The Macuxi are a group whose ancestral lands lie on the plains of Roraima. The Indians’ claim to the land has resulted in the attacks, and thusfar have forced many to abandon the ancestral grasslands. The report continues, â€Å"Damaio Mendes and Mario Davis were killed for land. The investigation into the killing was cursory. No one has been brought to justice. Dozens of Indians in Brazil have been murdered in similar circumstances. † One group, the leaders of the Mexica Movement, accuse Europeans of invading their lands in 1492 and and 1519, and breaking up â€Å"our lands that they call Mexico(1821), â€Å"Central America†(1823), and the â€Å"U. S. Southwest†(Texas in 1836 and the rest in 1848). (Mexica, 2)† They also point out that â€Å"In the last 500 years, in addition to the theft of our lands, we have seen the destruction of of our Anahuac cities, the execution of our leaders, the genocide if 23 million of our people (95% of our population killed), the theft of our wealth, the theft of out labor, and most importantly, the theft of our true Anahuac identity, history, heritage, and theology. † They point out many of the successes of the Anahuac civilization, including developed sciences, agriculture, philosophies, all of the civilized arts, and three cities larger than Europe’s largest city. Powerful phrases are used, such as â€Å"racial rape and cultural castration of our population†, and claim that the the influx of Europeans caused the Anahuac to become a society riddled with â€Å"ignorance, poor education, low-self-esteem, poverty, crime, gangs, dropouts, lack of indigenous representation, and and an inferiority complex of the worst kind: the self-hate of an entire people. † The Mexica Movement believes that the best way to solve this problem that they, as a society, are faced with, is to provide knowledge of its history and true heritage. They believe that â€Å"Knowledge, vision, courage, and perseverance will change our people into an authentically proud people, and a revived creative world force†¦ We will hold our heads and hearts proudly. We will happily know who we are. † Indigenous People of Australia The Aborigines are an indigenous group from Australia. They were the first human inhabitants of this land. The word Aborigine is actually from Latin language, meaning â€Å"from the beginning†. The Europeans gave this name to native Australians, but this is not what they call themselves. They prefer to be called Koori (Ponnamperuma). They adapted to their environment well: the people in the colder southeast tended to be short and thick-set which was useful for conserving body heat, and the people in the hot desert were taller and lean. The Aboriginals lived solely by hunting and food gathering. Each group accumulated detailed knowledge of the habits, cycles, and and food values of the plants, insects reptiles, marsupials, and fish found in its area, developing methods and equipment for obtaining them and, when necessary, for making them edible. The behavior of one insect, plant, or animal was a sign the condition or appearance of certain others, each in its own place in time. When one population group of natives increased beyond the number that could live within practical range, some of its members moved to the next unoccupied area, and still held kinship, social, economic, and ritual ties with the original group. By this process, all of Australia was occupied. The basic part of Aboriginal life was complete dependence on nature and on intelligent adaptation through knowledge and skill. This equilibrium between the native people and nature was hugely upset by European settlements beginning in 1788. The better lands were seized, and the food-gathering, theology, and social activities were stringently changed. The groups located near white settlements became more on an unbalanced diet furnished by whites. The inevitable result was the economic decline of the native people. The Aboriginals did, however, adjust to their new environment. For example, some Aboriginals in the northern cattle area were employed as stockmen. The Australian Federal Government is working along with natives to employ gradual self-determination and consultation in decision making. (Altman) However, continuing impoverished lifestyles of many groups of Aboriginals continues to be a problem. Education is poor and housing is inadequate(Real Borges 5 World). They received the right to vote in 1967, and are continuing to be successful in continuously demanding their rights as people (Ponnamperuma). Indigenous People of Hawaii. In 1893, the United States Government along with U. S. Minister John L. Stevens, through covert operations, overthrew the Hawaiian monarch led by Queen Liliuokalani and helped to establish a Provisional Government which took full possession of all government functions and buildings of the Hawaiian islands. That same year, President Grover Cleveland submitted to Congress a full report that condemned the role of the American minister and the U. S. Marines and called for a restoration of the Hawaiian monarchy. In 1898, Congress ignored President Cleveland’s previous request and brought into the Union the Hawaiian Islands through the â€Å"Newlands Resolution† This was legally questioned as to whether the U. S. Congress had authority to admit territory into the Union because it is not specified that it had right to acquire land other than through conquest or treaty. The Japanese American Citizens League (JACL) realizes that the actions taken by the U. S. are illegal and thus are the basis for their legal claims for the restoration of human, civil, property, and sovereign rights of Hawaii’s indigenous people. The JACL believes that the unlawful overthrow holds special significance, as it has neither been addressed nor remedied for over a century. This loss of self-rule, according to the JACL â€Å"remains an important cultural and political factor today (Costanha)†. Additionally, the JACL believes that â€Å"unresolved justice to one is harm endured by all†¦ full range or consideration of Hawaii’s peoples’ rights and freedoms must be completely explored in order to bring about harmony within Hawaii’s society,†(Costanha). The JACL Many Hawaiians are bitter about the current â€Å"hip Hawaiian culture,† with hula girls and surfers. Many believe that they are being exploited, including one of the leaders of the native Hawaiian’s sovereignty movement, Haunani-Kay Trask (Nakao, 1). There are two proposed plans for a sovereign Hawaii. One is the â€Å"nation within a nation† model in which 4. 2 million square acres are set aside as Hawaiian homeland and residents pay taxes to elected Hawaiian representatives. The United States would still be in charge of defense and most legal matters, but Hawaii would have control over its land and resources. The other plan is that of complete sovereignty, in which Hawaii holds complete rule. The countries of Brazil and Australia and the state of Hawaii all have things in common: internal conflict, one group thriving at the bottom of a social hierarchy, and that same group fighting for their rights. These groups need and deserve to be given the land that Europeans have taken from them, and also should be treated equally.

Illustrating your answer with specific examples, evaluate the impact Essay

Illustrating your answer with specific examples, evaluate the impact of structural adjustment programmes on agriculture in southern Africa - Essay Example They encourage balanced budgets by increasing taxes and reducing government spending on essential services like education, health and elimination of subsidies. They also encourage production of goods for export as opposed to consumption and also imports. The market is controlled by demand and supply and not the government even where intervention is required in order to stabilize prices. These structural policies were supposed to develop the economies of developing countries but less or no achievements have been made. They have discouraged private investors or made them to be monopolies hence straining the poor. The standard of living of member states has deteriorated due to high prices as a result of currency devaluation and lack of price controls. It has also contributed to poverty, unemployment due to reduced investments, and environmental degradation due to overemphasis on cash crop production among others (Holden, 1997). Environmental degradation is a hindrance to agricultural development. Agriculture has further been hindered by removal of subsidies on inputs such as fertilizer and entrance of subsidized imports from European markets as well as lack of credit for agriculture expansion. This paper is a critique of the impact of structural adjustment programmes on agriculture in Southern Africa. Agriculture is the backbone of most economies in Africa. Many countries engage in food crop production for subsistence, livestock farming and cash crop farming as a foreign exchange earner. Bryceson (1995) observes that agriculture is mostly considered as the practice for women and children as men engage in formal careers or sometimes cash crop production. Many factors affect agricultural activities leading to poor yields, hunger and malnutrition. These include; climate change, cost of farm inputs like fertilizer, market accessibility, land tenure, land degradation and health of workers among others. The southern African

Formation of Israel. Experiences of minority populations of the region Essay

Formation of Israel. Experiences of minority populations of the region before, during and after the formation of Israel. Effects of the formation of Israel o - Essay Example They also managed to conquer other substantial territories which had been allocated to the Palestinians. The minority groups were highly affected by the wars which were going on and some of them lost their lives as well as their cultural identities. The Jewish armies became victorious and they conquered most of the areas in that region. However Israel was invaded by five Arab armies soon after its declaration but it was very prepared and thus it succeeded in crushing the pockets of the resistance. (Israel Ministry of foreign affairs 2006) Israel is a country which is located in the south western part of Asia and in the northern part it is bounded by the country of Lebanon and also Syria and Jordan borders the country in the east. Israel is also bordered by the Gulf of Aqaba and Egypt as well as the Mediterranean Sea borders it on the western part. Many of the Jewish populants in Palestine started several revolts against the roman occupation of the area on the Gaza strip and also the west bank. However most of then were killed and the rest of them were dispersed to various parts of the Diaspora. The Palestinians were also Hellenized such that many churches were built around the sites which were holy to the Christians after Christianity was adapted as the official Roman Empire religion in the 14th century. After the collapse of the Roman Empire in th... A conquest of the entire area buy the Muslim Arabs followed. This was then followed by several European crusades in an attempt to recover the holy land as referred to by the Christians from the Muslims. (Israel Ministry of foreign affairs 2006) The initial crusade was however very successful as it captured the city of Jerusalem and also in the establishment of a Christian kingdom which lasted a whole century before it fell to the Egyptian sultans. Later on, Palestine was captured by the Turks from ottoman and it then became a part of the Ottoman Empire for a period of four centuries. (Aloni 2001) There was an emergence of the Zionist movement and it was advocating for the re-establishment of the homeland for the Jews in Palestine which also served as a refuge for the Jews who were prosecuted in Europe. The first Zionist congress was then organized in Basel and it publicized the Jewish claims to Palestine where a large number of the Jews had begun settling. During the First World War turkey was at war with France and Britain thus plans were made on the division of the Ottoman Empire where Palestine was to be on the British territory. So at to encourage the Jewish support on the war a leading Zionist from Britain established a Balfour declaration which stated that the government of Britain was in favor of the establishment of a national home for the Jewish people. Palestine was placed under the British administration on a mandate from the League of Nations. (Israel Ministry of foreign affairs 2006) However the Jews continued to migrate and conflict sprout with the resident Arabs and this further led to communal violence that was very severe in the environs of Jerusalem. The Jews

Business and international bribery Research Paper

Business and international bribery - Research Paper Example An example of a business that was subjected to a legal prosecution is Weatherford International Ltd. From 2004 to 2011, as a multinational organization, Weatherford International Ltd indulged with internal controls violations. Though Weatherford International Ltd operated in Angola and Iraq, court documents did not make specifications on the country wherein the vice took place. Weatherford International Ltd. Among many things did not: institute effective internal accounting controls; have a committed compliance officer; conduct anti-corruption training; and create a system for investigating ethics violations reports. Weatherford International Ltd. Employees also bribed a foreign official to see a renewal of a contract go through. In the case, U.S. v. Weatherford International Ltd., Weatherford International Ltd. was made to pay a penalty of USD 87,178,256. The case gave rise to the case law U.S. v. Weatherford International Ltd., No. 13-cr-733 (S.D. Tex. 2013) (Baughn, 19 & Pacini, 5 45). According to Lane and Simpson, There are indicators that attest to the adding power of the FCPA Act and the legal proscription of bribery by US multinationals. One of the values that the FCPA Act brings is its ability to rein in corruption and to protect meritocratic capitalism. The crux of the matter herein is that corruption [which bribery is a form of] undermines meritocratic capitalism by un-evening the playing field; subverting proper and legitimate functions of institutions; and encouraging or furthering the misallocation of economic resources. Again, according to the World Bank, corruption slows down the rate of an affected country by 0.5% to 1% annually and increases a marginal tax rate and clumps positive effects on inward investment (Lane and Simpson, 40). An example of an organization that has found corporate bribery in foreign land expediency is Siemens. In 2008, Siemens had to pay 1.6 billion USD as legal settlement to European and American

Relationship between Communication and Maslow's Hierarchy of Research Paper

Relationship between Communication and Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs - Research Paper Example It is logical that some needs are impossible to be satisfied without communication, for example, social needs (friendship, love) are impossible without a partner which implies his or her search by means of communication, and this paper will investigate into the role of the interpersonal communication in the human needs satisfaction. Every individual has his or her needs which are the things that are necessary for living and survival, depending on the level of the needs. The needs are the things that make an individual act in a proper way to satisfy them and to stay alive, which means that the needs cannot be left unsatisfied. Many of the needs of a human being imply interpersonal communication: for example, such need as love or any other form of relationship demands a partner finding which is possible only by means of communication with the potential partner. This paper will consider to which extent the communication between the individuals is important in terms of human needs satisfaction. The hypothesis of the present research is that the interpersonal communication is important for satisfaction of human needs at all their levels and significantly affects this process and may be an unalienable component of the successful result. An Outline of Human Needs. Abraham Maslow’s theoretical works on the phenomenon of the human needs is the material which is most often referred to in this regard. He described all the needs of a human being by means of their hierarchic organization, graphically also known as the Maslow pyramid, into five levels: physiological needs, safety needs, love or belonging needs, esteem needs, and self-actualization. (Maslow, 1943, 370-396). The first level, physiological needs, obviously, is the primary level which includes the basic human needs necessary for survival, such as eating and sleeping. (Maslow, 1943, 373). The second level, safety needs, is the level implying securing the life safety and the things which are also necessary for

Environmental Problem - Water Shortages Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Environmental Problem - Water Shortages - Essay Example Jury and Vaux (2007) posited that if the present rate of water consumption continues, the situation of water shortage will only get worse. They went on to postulate that by the year 2025, over two-thirds of the world’s population will most likely be faced with the challenge of water shortages. The world’s ecosystems will also be significantly affected as a result of the shortages. Water pollution comes from many sources, and this renders the water unusable or reduces the amount available for use. Ocean litter, for instance, from landfills blowing into the streams, containers from ships in the course of storms, and trash that normally washes off city streets end up in the ocean. While in the ocean, this debris undergoes decomposition slowly over the years leading to accumulation in large patches and washing on the beaches (Kundzewicz & Kaczmarek, 2000). Pesticides and fertilizers that are used in firms mostly end up in water sources. According to Chaturvedi (2000), the u se of these substances in crop production has increased substantially and is largely due to the increased demand for food production to sustain the increasing human population. While can argue that pesticides and fertilizers are used for noble causes, their effects on the environment are quite devastating. Indiscriminate application of these chemicals ends up polluting not only the lands where they are used but also water sources as they are washed into the nearby streams and waterways (Chaturvedi, 2000).

Early Childhood Education Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Early Childhood Education - Research Paper Example Learning a second language improves the knowledge and awareness of the child. The similarities and differences between the pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar of the languages would help him to understand the sounds, the words, and the rules for constructing a sentence in the most standard way. Moreover, researchers have proved that learning a new language bring several other qualities in children. It would build the foreign language comprehension and speech of children and would also improve the English verbal and listening skills. Early language study has much to do with the student’s higher performance in basic skills. New language learning also would strengthen the math and analytical skills of children. Moreover, learning foreign language would increase the exposure of the children to new cultures and different backgrounds and shall raise the self esteem of children. Learning Additional Language in Schools Coming to the case of learning languages, experts are of the opi nion that learning should start from schools and colleges. It is always not practical to teach adults as they may not have sufficient time and mentality to learn a new language. Learning a language is completely different from learning other matters. Surveys and research has come up with the conclusion that children are better learners as far as language learning is concerned. Governments (in most EU countries) are insisting to start the language class at schools and colleges so that children when they become adult citizens would be able to use it properly. Citizens who speak more than one language are really an asset to the nation. So parents and educational institutions are interested in adding a foreign... As the discussion declares learning a second language improves the knowledge and awareness of the child. The similarities and differences between the pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar of the languages would help him to understand the sounds, the words, and the rules for constructing a sentence in the most standard way. Moreover, researchers have proved that learning a new language bring several other qualities in children. It would build the foreign language comprehension and speech of children and would also improve the English verbal and listening skills. Early language study has much to do with the student’s higher performance in basic skills. New language learning also would strengthen the math and analytical skills of children. Moreover, learning foreign language would increase the exposure of the children to new cultures and different backgrounds and shall raise the self esteem of children.According to the report findings  learning a language is completely differen t from learning other matters. Surveys and research has come up with the conclusion that children are better learners as far as language learning is concerned.  Language teachings can a part of the curriculum or it can be a part of extracurricular activity in the school syllabi. Learning must start from the lower class itself as it would take few years to learn a language.  Native people will have difficulty in accessing such people and may have communication problems when dealing in such areas.

Evaluate strategies which may be used by businesses Essay Example for Free

Evaluate strategies which may be used by businesses Essay Evaluate strategies which may be used by businesses and governments to improve the competitiveness of a country’s goods and services. Competitiveness is the ability of a firm or a nation to offer goods and services that meet the quality standards of the local people and world markets at prices that are competitive and provide adequate returns on the resources employed or consumed in producing them. Governments have an important role for improving the competitiveness of their country’s goods and services. Governments are able to change regulations and taxes according to what they believe about their country’s state of economy. For example, a government may decide to decrease the corporation tax in order to improve the competitiveness of a country’s goods and services. A decrease in the corporation tax will encourage new firms to set up and existing firms to invest. Corporation tax is a levy placed on the profit of a firm with different rates used for different levels or profits. They are taxes against profits earned by businesses during a given taxable period. If there is a decrease in the corporation tax, it means that firms will have an increased retained profit since less money goes to the government revenue. This will allow firms to use this money to improve competitiveness. More spending on investment will be possible which will increase productivity. If the firms invest on capital goods such as machinery that will benefit the firm by producing at lower cost, then the firm might able to set lower prices in order to improve price-competitiveness. For example the UK government reduced the headline corporation tax rate from 30% to 28% in 2007 Budget. Reducing corporation tax increased the retained profits for UK firms that can plough back into investment projects. This should help to boost the UK capital stock. It should also help the UK to keep attracting foreign direct investment which improves the competitiveness furthermore since British firms may gain from the advanced technology and innovation of foreign multinationals. (Technology transfer) However, if the government decreases corporation tax, there might be some firms that decide to save the retained profits instead of spending on investment. This might be because there is a period of recession and firms might find it risky to invest. In addition many firms have chosen not to reinvest as they have been more concerned with making short term profits rather than investing in the future. If firms choose to save rather than invest their retained profits, a decrease in the corporation tax wouldn’t improve competitiveness. Another measure to improve competitiveness is to increase government spending on education and training. If the government can improve the quality of teaching in schools and universities and encourage more people to go to university, then this should lead to increase in productivity of the workforce in the future. Greater productivity will lead to greater efficiency in firms which will in turn lead to lower average costs of production. This may improve the price competitiveness of UK goods and services. In addition it would improve the non price competitiveness since a more educated workforce is likely to be able to be more creative and innovative. Greater innovation should lead to better quality products and the creation of patents, copyrights, brands etc. However, increased spending on education and training by the government does not always lead to increased global competitiveness. It will depend greatly on exactly how the money is spent. For example expenditure for improving school buildings or Ofsted inspections may not necessarily improve the effectiveness of the teachers and the quality of education. On the other hand spending on training teachers and advancing their professional development, might be a more effective means of improving educational standards in the future and increasing productivity. However even in this case the effects are not likely materialise until the longer term. Another way in which the government can improve the non price competitiveness and price competitiveness in international markets is to encourage innovation and research. Tax allowances have been made available to businesses spending on innovation and research. However, there has also been a variety of programmes which enable some businesses to gain grants for research and development R D and to set up knowledge transfer networks and universities. Such measures are likely to be more successful than tax cats since firms are given incentives to research and development through receiving tax concessions and from making connection to universities where they have the opportunity to learn about the latest scientific and technological advancements. On the other hand businesses, are able to introduce a variety of measures to improve the competitiveness of the goods and services. These include increasing the level of investment on new technology, on staff training, on ICT, etc . One way by which businesses might improve the competitiveness of their goods or services is by increasing the spending on R D. By increasing the spending on R D, businesses will most probably benefit from product and process innovation. If a business manages to create a unique and different product than the rest products in the market, it would be able to compete much more easily since consumers will prefer to buy the most innovated and technological updated products. For example Steve Job’s firm, Apple spent $758 million on RD during the first fiscal quarter of 2012. If we take Apple as an example which is one of the most profitable companies, we clearly see that it has benefited from the heavy spending on R D. It has come up with products such as the iPhone where the sales reached the number of 98,144,000 in the first three quadrants of 2012. However, some businesses prefer not to spend on R D because they do not think about the longer term. Also there are other firms that fail to spend on R D. For example the procedure of R D may result in no innovative products or procedures that will improve competitiveness and therefore. Another way, by which businesses might improve competitiveness, is by improving productivity. Productivity is the output per worker. There are different ways by which productivity can be improved. For example if the firms increase the wages, workers might be motivated to work harder. Also, training can improve the knowledge and skills of staff. Improved recruitment and selection may have the same effect which will increase productivity in the short term. If the business increases spending on training, workers will be more educated and informed about their job. This will increase the productivity since they will be able to produce more output at the same working hours and wages. If the productivity is increased, it means that more output will be produced at relatively the same costs. This will allow the firm to get bigger in size, lower the running and operational costs, increase income and gain a greater share of the market. This will increase both price and non-price competitiveness. However productivity doesn’t always improve competitiveness. For example if training isn’t done effectively, and workers do not give attention or really care about the job, then they won’t improve their knowledge and skills, training will not improve productivity, and therefore productivity will not improve competitiveness. In addition, productivity might not improve competitiveness because in the case of increasing the wages in relation of the output the worker producers, there are workers that wouldn’t be motivated by an increase in their salary and therefore will not produce a greater output. Productivity can be used as a measure to improve competitiveness only if it is used correctly and it can increase both price and non-price competitiveness. It can improve price competitiveness by allowing the businesses to set lower prices and improve non-price competitiveness by expanding as a firm and increasing its popularity.

Individual Rationality and Collective Rationality Essay Example for Free

Individual Rationality and Collective Rationality Essay 1. Introduction of Double Auction As one of the most popular way to trade, auction has a long history. According to the different kinds of market structure, there are two kinds of auction, one-side auction and two-side auction (i.e. double auction). Compared with one-side auction, the market structure of the double auction is many-to-many, which means that there are more than one seller and more than one buyer, so both the buyers and sellers lose their own comparative advantage which exists in one-side auction. The relationship between them is a kind of equality between demand and supply. In recent years, with the development of the global economy, there are more challenges for new auction theory and its applications, which are shown in the following aspects. First, with the development of the Internet and communication technologies, e-commerce has become a new business method. At the same time, internet auction has been widely used in the field of e-commerce. Since auction is widely used in the field of trading non-scarcity goods, it changes structure of auction, which used to be based on the buyer’s market or the seller’s market. As double auction can solve the problem of collusion and malignant bid, it has become a widely used way in e-commerce. For example, both NYSE and Chicago Exchange have put different kinds of double auction into practice. With the growing of financial market and e-commerce, the need for better auction rules is surely increasing. Besides, as enterprise restructuring has become a hot topic, double auction is found to be a way to deal with property transactions, mergers and acquisitions. What’s more, with the upgrade of demand structure, the diversification strategy for enterprise business and influence of the supply chain management, there are diversified production, diversified manufacturing and diversified demand. Many famous car companies such as Ford are using combinatorial double auction to the sale and purchase of auto parts. When auction is used in the above fields with various needs, there is a great need for the development of new auction model. Compared with other auction mechanisms, double auction can not only solve the problem of monopoly, but also reduce the duration and costs of trade. However, there are still some problems about it, such as trading rules, the way to release information and the formation of transaction price. According to the above reasons, double auction has attracted much attention. And the core theories about it are Smith’s mystery and Hayek problem, which try to explain how the double auction can reach the equilibrium price and equilibrium quantity predicted by the demand-supply model, under the conditions that there is no complete information and few people in the auction. 2. Design of Experiment In order to do some further analysis, we conducted an experiment which simplified real double auction situations with the help of several undergraduate students under four assumptions: First, rational man assumption, which means everyone wants to maximize his/her profit. Second, the goods are homogeneous, so there is no monopoly. Third, there is no cost of sending or getting information, i.e. the transaction cost is zero. Fourth, the participants have no information about the experiment parameter (the value for buyer or cost for seller) before they join the experiment. (2) Trading rules a. When the trade begins, the buyers give their quotes first. Who raises his hand first will quote first. Then, the sellers offer the price they ask. b. Both the sellers and the buyers don’t know the information about the other side. c. When quoting, the seller must ask for a price that is lower than the former seller, and the buyer must ask for a price that is higher than the former buyer. When the price of the two sides is equal, a transaction is reached. d. The trade for each group is divided into three periods and each period lasts for 5 minutes. (3)Trading steps a. Divide all the participants into two groups, buyer and seller, and each group has 8 people. b. Zero phase trade. In order to make the participants familiar with the rules, there is a zero phase trading, the result of which is not included into the final result. c. Begin official trade. d. End trade and take down all the results, including every participant’s own profit in each period and their total profits. Double Auction Experiment 1. Concept Definition and Parameter Settings If we carefully consider each quoting process, we will find the game process in double auction. There are inside game and outside game in the experiment. Firstly, there is among-group game between buyer and seller and they want to drive down or push up prices to earn as much profit as possible. And based on the theoretical design, a buyer and a seller can be trading at least one unit of commodity in one trading period. Experiment shows that each buyer and seller generally trade exactly once each period. Secondly, there is within-group game both among buyers and among sellers. Taking buyer as an example, when the seller quotes a price, buyer X can choose to trade or wait. If choosing to trade, he will probably miss a next lower quoted price although obtaining a certain surplus. However, if he chooses to wait, then the other buyers may intervene in transaction, which constitute competition for buyer X. Each buyer and seller should consider the competition within group, acting as an individual in the game. Meanwhile, they should also consider the competition between groups, acting both as an individual and a group in the game. As can be seen, the core of the complex game process is the relationship of individual-collective interaction. By observing dynamic transaction and competitive process among individual, between the individual and the collective and between the collective, we try to find the interpretation of some problems. Therefore, constructing appropriate parameters, we proceed from rational assumption to define individual rationality and collective rationality respectively. (1) Constructing quoted price functions of the buyer and the seller Firstly, assuming the quoted price function of the buyer i is bidi = vi(1-Ï€i) where bidi denotes the quoted price of buyer i, vi denotes the willing-to-pay of buyer i, Ï€i denotes expected rate of return. Secondly, assuming the quoted price function of the seller is: askj = cj(1+Ï€j) where askj denotes the quoted price of seller j, cj denotes the cost of seller j, Ï€j denotes the expected rate of return of seller j. (2) According to the market parameters and theoretical equilibrium price(7.8) of buyer and seller, we can calculate the standard rate of return of every buyer and seller, Ï€i* and Ï€j*, respectively. (3) On this basis, we assume that individual rationality index is bri=Ï€i/Ï€i* of the buyer, srj= Ï€j/Ï€j* of the seller. The higher the index, the higher is the degree of the buyer or the sellers individual rationality, for it indicates more incentive to maximize their interests strongly. The standard individual rationality is 1, indicating that the expected rate of return and the actual rate of return of the buyer or the sellers are consistent. (4) Similarly, we can define the buyers collective rationality index as sbri=Ï€i/Ï€i*, where Ï€i is the average expected rate of return of all the buyers who participate in a transaction, Ï€i* is the standard average rate of return of the buyers. Whats more, we can define the sellers collective rationality index as ssrj=Ï€j/Ï€j*. The higher the index, the higher is the degree of collective rationality, because it indicates more strongly motivation to maximize their collective interests. The standard collective rationality is also 1, indicating that the expected collective rate of return and the actual collective rate of return of the buyer or the sellers are consistent. 2. Analysis of Parameters In order to study the market inefficiency of the second group, we selected two sets of data as a typical example. Group #1s transaction price is equal to the theoretical equilibrium price (7.8), while Group #2s transaction price is far from the theoretical equilibrium price, only 6.3. Lets observe the quoted price of the buyers and the sellers in the first group, We find that in the second offer, S2s quoted price fell directly from 10 to 7.5, its price is less than the theoretical equilibrium price 7.8, which makes the sellers quoted price become farther and farther away from the equilibrium price. Instead, the buyers offer is steadily rising with smaller fluctuation, which makes the buyers successfully lower price. Let’s move to the quotes of the buyers and sellers from Group #2. Obviously, the quote fluctuations of both sides are smaller and the final equilibrium price (Pe) is closer to the ideal value. Therefore, we may infer that in the double auctions where the number of quotations reaches a certain level, if we want the final transaction price to be close to the theoretical equilibrium price, fluctuations in both quotations cannot be too great, otherwise it will be very easy to deviate from Pe, consequently making either buyer side or seller side gains too much surplus. The reason why we emphasize a certain level of the number of quotations is that if either one side of the bidders or the askers offers a price that is quite close to the expected one, a deal is very likely to be made. Actually, we do see lots of quick transactions in the experiment, especially the 2nd round of Group #1, where there would be expected to exist fluctuation. But that quick deal is based on that either buyer or seller or both of them have an intuition about Pe or are simply informed of that price. If the information for both sides is so inadequate or even zero, then it will seem quite important to estimate Pe by price fluctuation during the first several quotes. On the other hand, however, substantial quote fluctuations will not only compress the quote space afterwards, but also impair one’s own market power, while increasing the other side’s market power and surplus. Let’s now look at the changes in individual rate of return and individual rationality index of Group #1 and #2. Group #1 A. Expected Rate of Return The fluctuation of expected rate of return is distinct around the seller S2, where the expected rate of return of buyers is far higher than that of the sellers. B. Individual Rationality As can be seen, buyers’ individual rationality fluctuates more than the sellers’, while the degree of buyers’ individual rationality (1, since round 2) is much higher than that of sellers’ (1, and decreasing since round 2). Thus, we can assume that there is a collective irrational phenomenon among the sellers. Usually, both buyer and seller will hope to receive higher surplus and try to make the price more beneficial to themselves. So it’s reasonable to see that individual rationality index fluctuates a bit around the standard line or even higher than it, just to make the final transaction price and surplus closer to the theoretical ones. But in this case, seller S2 suddenly lowers his expected rate of return (from the normal 2.22 to 0.86), probably because he underestimates Pe or just wants to quickly sell the product. It’s quite hard for the following sellers to reach the ideal level, but can only quote under 1, giving buyers more space for quote and more power to control the market. If the sellers following S2 used to have higher expectation than 1, then a phenomenon called inconsistency of collective rationality occurs by the influence of inconsistency of individual rationality. When it happens, the irrational collectivity’s power is impaired and Pe and surplus will end up more beneficial to the other collectivity. As can be seen from the experiment results, the collective rationality index of buyers is 2.793, which is much higher than that of sellers, 0.808. Group #2 A. Expected Rate of Return The expected rate of return fluctuates more, comparatively. What’s more important, the values of both sides are quite close. B. Individual Rationality This corresponds to our previous analysis. The individual rationality index of both buyers and sellers is always larger and very close to Group #1. The individual rationality equals to the standard individual rationality when the final deal is made. In this situation, the quote range and market power for both sides are similar without any doubt. The price at equilibrium and the surplus are close to the theoretical value. Therefore, we can think that there is no disturbance of individual rationality to collective rationality for both sides. From the perspective of collective rationality index, sbri=1.879ï ¼Å'ssrj=1.692ï ¼Å'the difference is relatively small and both values are larger than 1. From the analysis above, the following could be inferred. In certain times of quote, if the market’s transaction price and surplus diverge from the theoretical Pe and surplus, there must exist a negative disturbance of individual rationality to collective rationality for one side which enables the other side to have dominant power of quote. In another way, if the market’s transaction price and surplus are close to theoretical values, there is going to appear two cases. First, individual rationality and collective rationality are in accordance with each other for both sides and both have the similar market power which results in mutual antagonism; second, disturbances for both sides may be very large and the rationality values are not close at all, which does not show in all the experimental data while it could be thought to exist theoretically. The values are close only at the transaction price and it is based on an obvious premise that the values are larger than 1, since as long as one value is less than 1, it is very easy (not necessarily) to fall to a weak position (which usually happens in the first round of Group #2). The way to analyze these three situations is pretty similar to the one analyzing monopoly and competitive markets. The key element is the effect of the relation between individual rationality and collective rationality to market power. Conclusion From the analysis above, we can reach a primary conclusion that the quote from a single seller or buyer can affect the formation and the result of market equilibrium. We can use individual-collective rationality model to explain the process. Individual rationality can cause a destabilization to collective rationality (resulting in remarkable fluctuation), when the destabilization is small, which means that the individual rationality that causes it is not less than one, the collective rationality still tends to be consistent and this will not have a significant effect on the market power of both sides. But when the destabilization is large, which means that the individual rationality that causes it is less than one, there will be a significant effect on the consistency of the collective rationality, so there will be a change of the two sides’ market power. Then, the equilibrium price and the surplus of both sides also change. So, there is a kind of tension between individual desirability and collective desirability. There are some points that we need to pay attention to. First, this kind of relationship becomes more obvious with the increasing of quotation times during one period. The deeper reason for this is the lack of information and each side has to continuously probe and tries to release as much information, which can maximize his profit, as possible, no matter whether the information is true. If the deal can be reached within one or two times, there will be no such complex game about the info releasing and collecting. Second, in reality, the destabilization is always negative (i.e. a sudden decrease in bid or expected return), which indicates the bounded rationality. We don’t need to take positive destabilization into account. So, how can we use this model to explain the non efficiency phenomenon of market in double auction? There are two aspects that we need to pay attention to. First, the relationship of individual rationality and collective rationality has an effect on the market power, and then affects the equilibrium price and the ratio of the surplus of both sides; the price either has a bad effect on the sellers or the buyers (In our experiment, it is the sellers that lose). Thus, some buyers or sellers that could have entered the deal are kicked off now, which leads to some deadweight loss. Second, when the market power is out of balance, the number of games between buyers and sellers will increase. Let’s take the third group (whose transaction price is averagely 10% less than theoretical Pe) as an example. When the buyers realize their power and advantage, they will wait the sellers to decrease the price. At that time, from the perspective of buyers, the earnings of waiting is larger than the risk. The sellers are forced to decrease the price, but only for a little each time to avoid a worse price. As a result, during the limited trading times, the number of transactions decreases, which leads to further deadweight loss. References 1. JAVIER GIL-BAZO, DAVID MORENO, AND MIKEL TAPIA, â€Å"Price Dynamics, Informational Efficiency, And Wealth Distribution in Continuous Double-Auction Markets†, Computational Intelligence, Volume 23, Number 2, 2007 2. Charles A.Holt, Loren W.Langan, Anne P.Villamil, Market power in oral double auctions† Economic Inquiry, 24:1 (1986:Jan.) p.107 3. Juliette Rouchier, Stà ©phane Robin, â€Å"Simulation Gaming† 4. Darren Duxbury, â€Å"Experimental Evidence on Trading Behavior, Market Efficiency and Price Formation in Double Auctions with Unknown Trading Duration†

The differences of Ethnic cleansing and Genocide

The differences of Ethnic cleansing and Genocide research methodology: The research conducted herein is primarily doctrinal in nature, with the help of various international instruments and judgments decided by the judicial authorities in the international sphere. research questions: Basic Questions: Through the medium of this project the basic questions that have been asked are: What is meant by ethnic cleansing and genocide? Secondly whether there exists any difference between the two? What are these differences? HYPOTHESIS: There exist distinguishing factors between both the crimes of genocide and ethnic cleansing, the only distorting factor is when the latter is achieved by committing genocide. Both, ought to be treated as equally grave crimes committed against humanity. Moreover, a need is felt for stricter laws on ethnic cleansing in order to serve as deterrence to the same. objects and aims: The project has been made on the basic premise of the crime of Ethnic Cleansing with the background of the break up of the Former Yugoslavia, replete with crimes of a grave nature. In order to understand this concept of Ethnonationalism, it is also important to understand another international crime, genocide. Ergo, this project aims at achieving the following in lieu of the research available: To attain clarity as to the concepts of Ethnic Cleansing and Genocide. To surmise the incidents of the two types of international crimes and look at various judicial interpretations and legal instruments for the same. To try and arrive at a clear cut distinction between these two concepts which can be perceived to be intertwined. This project aims at serving as a panacea to innumerable ambiguities found on the laws of ethnic cleansing and to acquaint various interested parties on the aforementioned topic which is, as of now, a morass of laws involved. INTRODUCTION: As long as I have any choice, I will stay only in a country where political liberty, toleration, and equality of all citizens before the law are the rule. -Albert Einstein. For centuries, man has been fighting with his brother, over man-made issues of differences in their status, nationality, race, colour, religion to name a few. In India itself, this differentiation has taken shape in the form of differences in class, differences between Muslims and Hindus, Sikhs and Christians, recent incidents taking place in Orissa and Kerala are gory examples of the same. In fact, this in essence has also taken place in Maharashtra in 2008 wherein almost 20,000 North Indians fled Pune and other such cities, the same revealed by an article in the Indian Express. Statistics in fact have shown that man is being a threat himself to another man causing his mass exodus. Despite the advancement in technology man doesnt seem to want to co-exist with another, a deficiency which will lead to its self-destruction sooner or later. This is essentially the concept of ethnic cleansing, an international crime progressively taking more antagonistic forms as time passes. In principle, an ethnic group  [1]  would be defined as a community whose heritage offers important characteristics in common between its members and which makes them distinct from other communities. There is a boundary, which separates us from them, and the distinction would probably be recognized on both sides of that boundary. Ethnicity is a multi-faceted phenomenon based on physical appearance, subjective identification, cultural and religious affiliation, stereotyping, and social exclusion.  [2]   The phrase ethnic cleansing was originally introduced by reporters covering the Yugoslav wars of disintegration between 1991 and 1995, but as a course of action it is much older than that.  [3]  By definition, it has been defined as a phenomenon wherein one ethnic group expels members of other ethnic groups from a geographic area in order to create ethnically pure enclaves for members of their ethnic group.  [4]   However, the complexities involved when it comes to ethnic cleansing, is that till date despite the number of occurrences there exists a blur when it comes to differences between genocide and ethnic cleansing.  [5]  Also, the number of incidents wherein ethnic cleansing has taken place makes one question the effectiveness and the authority of the UN and the several other peace keeping bodies.  [6]   It is also pertinent to note that while in theory, the purpose of ethnic cleansing is to drive all members of the victimized group out of a territory. In practice, ethnic cleansing is nearly synonymous with genocide because mass murder is a common characteristic of both. Though, therefore, there is a thin line between the two crimes, it is the need of the hour to differentiate between the two crimes and do away with the pervasive ambiguities. analysis: genocide and its incidents: In order, to be able to differentiate between the concepts of genocide and ethnic cleansing it is first important to understand each of these concepts individually. Ergo, this part will basically focus on the definition of genocide as arrived at in several landmark judgments and also its main essentials, with the natural corollary of looking at the definition of ethnic cleansing. The term genocide was coined by Raphael Lemkin using the combination of the Greek word genos (race or tribe) and the Latin word cide (killing).  [7]  Article II of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, 1948 defines the term genocide to include killing, causing serious bodily or mental harm, amongst several other things  [8]  , which was accepted as being part and parcel of the customary international law or jus cogens in the case of Prosecutor v. Goran Jelisic.  [9]   The case of Advisory Opinon of the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, defines genocide as follows: a crime under international law involving a denial of the right of existence of entire human groups, a denial which shocks the conscience of mankind and results in great losses to humanity, which is contrary to moral law and to the spirit and aims of the United Nations.  [10]   Genocide without exceptions made is considered to the most despicable crime when it comes to crimes against humanity, which is why Courts are reluctant in arriving at a conclusion which affirms the existence of genocide. It essentially requires two components for the said crime to take the form of genocide, viz. Actus Reus and Mens Rea. These go hand in hand wherein if any of the acts mentioned above have been committed with the necessary specific intent (dolus specialis).  [11]   In the Jelisic  [12]  case it was held that the special nature of this intent supposes the discriminatory nature of the act wherein a group is targeted discriminatorily as such and in this context genocide is closely related to the crime against humanity.  [13]  The Court again found the existence of this specific intent in the case of Akeysu  [14]  wherein the Trial Chamber I held that the rape of Tutsi women in Rwanda in 1994 constituted the crime of genocide.  [15]  In the case of Bosnia-Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia it was held that genocide could be committed both at time of peace as well as of armed conflict.  [16]   Therefore, a perusal of the aforementioned cases clearly shows there is a need of specific intent in case of indictments for the crime of genocide.  [17]   Ethnic Cleansing and its incidents: The 1990s has had the most number of instances wherein the crime of ethnic cleansing has been recorded. This has been attributed by the UN to various political parties which indulge in the same by ruling various States. This power was clearly wielded by the Shiv Sena party in Maharashtra with their jingoistic tactics in expelling Non-Maharashtrians. Blacks Law Dictionary defines ethnic cleansing as: The officially sanctioned forcible and systematic diminution or elimination of targeted ethnic minorities from a geographic area by confiscating real and personal property, ordering or condoning mass murders and mass rapes and expelling the survivors. Few authors are of the opinion that the crime of ethnic cleansing is a 20th Century phenomenon while most others disagree.  [18]  A prototype of ethnic cleansing can be taken from the experience of the Jews during the Nazi Regime, where in order to create Lebensraum, or living space, Hitler, the dictator started an expansionist drive to create a pure Germany. The term ethnic cleansing, a literal translation of the Serbo-Croatian phrase etnicko ciscenje, has resulted in a lot of atrocities like mass killings as well as rape as a means of creating supremacy over the minorities.  [19]   In many of these campaigns, women were targeted for particularly brutal treatment-including systematic rape and enslavement-in part because they were viewed by perpetrators as the carriers, biologically and culturally, of the next generation of their nations. Because many men in victimized populations left their families and communities to join resistance groups once violence began, women and children were often defenseless.  [20]  Statistics shows that the Bosnia-Herzegovina war envisaged a shocking estimate of 20,000 women who endured sexual assaults in the form of either torture or rape. Serbian political and military leaders systematically planned and strategically executed this policy of ethnic cleansing or genocide with the support of the Serbian and Bosnian Serb armies and paramilitary groups to create a Greater Serbia: a religiously, culturally, and linguistically homogenous Serbian nation.5  [21]  The promulgation of the concept of ethnic cleansing and the practices it represents are a grim, contemporary reminder of the global nature of interethnic and interracial inequality and strife.  [22]   The following passage taken from an article is proof of the mass destruction and depraved justice that took place during the Bosnia-Herzegovina War: More than two million people-almost half the population- are still dispossessed of their homes. Some 600,000 of these are refugees abroad who have not yet found durable solutions, many of whom face the prospect of compulsory return into displacement within Bosnia and Herzegovina in the near future. Another 800,000 have been internally displaced to areas in the control of their own ethnic group, living in multiple occupancy situations, in collective centres or in property vacated by the displacement of others, often in situations of acute humanitarian concern. The fundamental issue for the future of the post-war society of Bosnia and Herzegovina is whether these people can or will return to their homes.  [23]   A case study shows that the challenges of post 1980 former Yugoslavia were exacerbated by the countrys demographic and socio-cultural make-up, comprising several ethnonationalities with different religions, mentalities, histories and levels of development. In the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Croatia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina the authoritarian regimes and their leaders were the main sources of human rights violations. Nationalism and hatred of other peoples and religions were probably the reasons for the brutal break up of the former Yugoslavia. Ethnonationalism was, and has largely remained, widely and deeply entrenched among the constituent groups.  [24]   Various authorities indicate that the notion of ethnic cleansing takes place when there is a deportation of mass population on the basis of their ethnic differences in order to create a homogenous ethnic State. While a crime like genocide inevitably results in imposing criminal liability, it has been stated by several authors that since the term ethnic cleansing does not appear in any of the laws the same is not punishable as long as genocide, rape or other crimes against humanity have not been used, which have been banned by several legal instrument.  [25]   This argument however is to be rendered untenable  [26]  as though, ethnic cleansing per se doesnt feature under the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, it can be included under crimes against humanity under Article 7 which speaks of Deportation or forcible transfer of population  [27]  equivalent to ethnic cleansing. Moreover, a perusal of the Statute of the International Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia under Article 4  [28]  also makes the crime of ethnic cleansing punishable. The Trial Chamber  [29]  in a particular case was satisfied beyond reasonable doubt that the crimes that were committed in the Bosnian Krajina from April 1992 until the end of December 1992, the period relevant to the Indictment, occurred as a direct result of the over-arching Strategic Plan. The ethnic cleansing was not a by-product of the criminal activity; it was its very aim and thus an integral part of the Strategic Plan.  [30]   Therefore, a perusal of the aforementioned authorities helps one understand essentially the concept of ethnic cleansing and the essentials thereof. differences between the two: Andrew Bell-Fialkoff in his book, has remarked thatà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ the crime of ethnic cleansing defies easy definition. At one end it is virtually indistinguishable from forced emigration and population exchange while at the other it merges with deportation and genocide. At the most general level, however, ethnic cleansing can be understood as the expulsion of a population from a given territory.  [31]   Different authors have different opinions regarding the differences between these two, while some state such a difference exists only in theory while other claim it to exist practically as well. From a perusal of the above, genocide and ethnic cleansing can be differentiated in three ways: (1) Need of intent: Genocide could be a means to commit ethnic cleansing, but the purpose of such a crime then would not be murder but would be otherwise. Furthermore, in contrast to genocide, there is no need for special intent under the crime of ethnic cleansing, making it easier for parties to establish a crime of ethnic cleansing in comparison to a charge of genocide leveled against a particular party to the dispute.  [32]  It has been found under various texts that the requirement of specific intent is not found under ethnic cleansing, making it easier to prove before the International Courts in comparison to the crime of genocide.  [33]   (2) The purpose: The purpose under genocide is the physical destruction of an ethnical, racial or a religious group, while that of ethnic cleansing is the founding of ethnically homogeneous lands. The means used for the latter could also be genocide.  [34]   (3) Ends achieved: While genocide results in physical destruction of a particular minority groups, ethnic cleansing results in the flight of a community not necessarily mass killing.  [35]   As found in the previously, it may not always be feasible to point out differences between the two. In fact, this clear cut distinction has been reduced by various subsequent measures taken by the authoritative bodies. In 1992 concerning the hostilities in Yugoslavia, the UN General Assembly  [36]  clearly stated that ethnic cleansing is a form of genocide.  [37]   To worsen the situation, in the case of Prosecutor v. Krstic,  [38]  , the Trial Chamber of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY), expressly diverging from the wider interpretation of the notion of intent to destroy by the United Nations made a difference between ethnic cleansing and genocide. an enterprise attacking only the cultural or sociological characteristics of a human group in order to annihilate these elements which give to that group its own identity distinct from the rest of the community would not fall under the definition of genocide. Similarly, in the case of Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro (Case concerning the application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide) the International Court of Justice  [39]  have also upheld the above judgment based on the same reasoning.  [40]  Various scholars also have given views similar to that found in the above cases wherein a distinction has been made between the two offences.  [41]   Therefore, there remains doubt in this unchattered territory, but courts generally refrain from holding a state or an official responsible for the offence of genocide in comparison to that of ethnic cleansing. Conclusion: From an analysis of the above judgments, we find that there exists a very thin line between the concepts of genocide and that of ethnic cleansing. There is a need to attain consistency with regard to the various opinions on the same, consistency being an essential or cannon of any law. The basic bone of contention is in fact this lack of uniformity in interpreting the law by the courts. That apart, a need is felt that stricter international norms be laid down in order to ensure that a crime like ethnic cleansing taking the form of international crimes like rape, genocide does not take place at the ferocity that it has been since the 1990s.  [42]   It should be realized by the UN and various other monitoring bodies that it is imperative that a clear cut distinction be made between the two, agreed, a strait-jacket formula cannot be applied, but it should lay down certain parameters for determining when ethnic cleansing takes place. As of now, the definition of the said terms remains uncertain in international law. States should realize that even the magna carta Universal Declaration of Human Rights  [43]  ordains equality on each and every human being, which would immediately render the offence of ethnic cleansing purposeless.  [44]   It is to be necessarily understood that, As long as the criminals are divided into ours and theirs; as long as ethnic discrimination is not replaced with moral and professional criteria; as long as already initiated democratic processes do not take roots; there will be little chance of reconciliation, economic development and respect for the human rights and freedoms.  [45]   Therefore, an attempt has been made by virtue of this project to understand the basic differences between these two types of crimes which are basically instigated against other human beings and the same conclusion has been arrived at with the help of leadings judgments and opinions of various authors on the same. Ethnic cleansing results in the division of a particular country into several fragments, there more the disputes the more these fragments will break and finally there shall be nothing for one to offer. This has been aptly illustrated in the following paragraph: In Germany they first came for the communists; and I didnt speak up because I wasnt a communist. Then they came for the Jews; and I didnt speak up because I wasnt a Jew. Then they came for the trade unionists; and I didnt speak up because I wasnt a trade unionist. Then they came for the Catholics; and I didnt speak up because I wasnt a Catholic. Then they came for me and by that time there was nobody left to speak up. Martin Niemoller